The changing face of African Literature

 African literature spans centuries, yet written forms can only be traced to the late 19^th century. Much of African literary forms were preserved as oral literature. Today, African literature can boast of both oral and written forms.
To define African Literature, one question needs to be answered first, ‘should African Literature be written in African languages’? In the 1960s, much diatribe was exchanged by African literary artists within their caucus, and outside with different scholars interested in African Literature. According to the argument, African literature must be written in an African language. To this Chinua Achebe responded, “You cannot cram African literature in a small, neat definition. I do not see African literature as one unit but as associated units – in fact, the sum total of all the national and ethnic literatures of Africa”, (Mbagwu, 2011).

In defining African Literature, one therefore needs to search deeper than the surface, to find the essence of what is truly African. There is need to go beyond the impression that has been created about a continent that holds a wealth of knowledge, carefully embedded in its culture and people. African Literature should be described holistically and not in parts. Many attempts have been made at defining African Literature. The definition that stands out is that it is written or unwritten forms of valuable literature that has incorporated cultures, languages, norms and practices of people and societies that hail from Africa. It is work of the African continent. African Literature has been written in what has been referred to as colonial languages, such as English, Portuguese and French, (Mbagwu, 2011). 

African literature has undergone a lot of change since the pre-colonial era. In discussing the changes, it is important to recognise what have been the major influences. For example, what have been the major themes over the centuries? How have different writers handled the various literary forms? 

Pre-colonial literature comprised oral traditional forms for the most part. However, there were written literatures from all over Africa. In east Africa, Ethiopia to be precise, literature was written in Ge’ez as far back as the fourth century AD, the most renowned work being the Kebra Negast or the Book of kings. Folklores were also written among the Ashanti of Ghana, Yoruba of Nigeria, (Stephanie Newell, 2002). The popular hare stories can be traced back to central and southern Africa. More works came out of North Africa and from the Swahili coast. From the University of Timbuktu alone, 300,000 manuscripts tucked away in various libraries and private collections, mostly written in Arabic but some in the native languages (namely Fula and Songhai),  (Encarta., 2009).

In the 18^th century written works that marked the colonisation period and the slave trade included Olaudah Equiano’s ‘The interesting narratives of the life of Olaudah Equiano, written in 1789. Most the themes centred on the arrival of the Europeans and narratives about the slave trade. The major influence during this era, is the language, as most writers started to write in the language of the Europeans. During this period, African plays written in English began to emerge. Herbert Isaac Ernest Dhlomo of South Africa published the first English-language African play, The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongqawuse the Liberator in 1935. In 1962, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African drama, The Black Hermit, a cautionary tale about "tribalism" (discrimination between African tribes). The most acclaimed novel, ‘Things Fall Apart’ is a product of the early colonial period, (Dashu, 2013). The themes bordered on the arrival of the Europeans and the conflicts that arose thereafter.

With the turn of the century, liberation struggles were strong influence on writing. Themes about independence and freedom became part of African literature. Writers faced either faced jail time or were killed because of their ideas. Among Africans in French-controlled territories) négritude. One of the leaders of the négritude movement, the poet and eventual President of Senegal, Léopold Sédar Senghor, published in 1948 the first anthology of French-language poetry written by Africans, (Mboya, 1970).

Modern African literature has significantly changed. There are a lot of literary productions in Africa, even though there are not as many readers and followers. Certain writings have appeared that have broken the academic style. There is a lot of pressure on the modern African writer. For example, the competition for readership, awards and so on.

There is a future for African literature. Africans are yet to tell their own story. For the modern writer, there is need to maintain balance between the demands of literary world in modern days and the need to maintain what is African in all literary forms.

REFERENCES

Gunner, H. S. (2018). Britannica . Retrieved from Britannica.com

Kenya LIterature Bureau . (1985). Literature for Children and Young People in Kenya . Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau.

Mbagwu, C. E. (2011). Promoting Access to African Research . Retrieved from African Journals online : https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ujah/article/view/71748

Mboya, T. (1970). The Challenge of Nationhood. Oxford : Heinemann Educational Books .

Scheub, E. A. (2018, December 31). Encoclopaedia Britannica . Retrieved from Britannica.com: https://www.britannica.com/art/African-literature

Sparknotes . (2018). Sparknotes. Retrieved from https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/things/themes/

Stephanie Newell. (2002). Stephanie Newell, Literary Culture in Colonial Ghana: 'How to Play the Game of Life' , BloominEthical Fiction. Indiana: Indian University Press.

Stokes, R. H. (1931, July 30). Amazon . Retrieved from www.complete-review.com/reviews/safrica/mofolot.htm

Williamson, J. (2007). The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself. Vol. I. Documenting the American South, 1-3. Retrieved from https://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/equiano1/summary.html

The role of creative writing in preserving and promoting traditional values

Creative writing plays an important role in preserving histories and various forms of culture. Creative writing is defined as writing that goes outside the bounds of professional or technical forms of literature. The emphasis is on the narrative craft, character development, and the use of literary tropes or with various traditions of poetry and poetics, (English Oxford Living Dictionaries , 2019). It is this ‘freedom’ of expression within the creative writing forms that give impetus to include or adapt elements from the environment and society to include in the writing. A creative writer is at liberty to develop characters or underlying themes that not just entertain but also serve as learning points. Some examples include personal essays, descriptive essays, and persuasive essays. Storytelling: One of the most popular types of creative writing is storytelling. Storytelling lends itself to both fiction and nonfiction. Popular forms include flash fiction, short stories, novellas, and full-length novels, (Gunner, 2007).

During the pre-colonial era, African literature was preserved through oral forms. Through storytelling, dance, song, poetry and traditional ceremonies, cultural values were passed on from generation to generation. In some societies, the trend has continued, where only few privileged members are custodians of histories and cultural values of ethnic groups. Creative writing can bridge gaps and carry these almost extinct values forward to the next generations.

 In ‘Things Fall Apart’ and ‘Arrow of God’, Chinua Achebe depicted the environment in which the Ibo culture thrived. In showing the conflict between western and Ibo cultures, both Achebe explicitly proves the importance of traditions that had existed for centuries, (Achebe, 1952). ‘Arrow of God’ represents the struggle for power and authority between the African and the missionaries and within the Igbo clan. The identity issues are continued by Achebe as the sequel to the issues reflected in Things Fall Apart during the colonial era. He points out the continuity of African cultural disruption with the same insight and involvement in the 1920s after the arrival of the missionaries in Nigeria, (Chinua, 1964). These much acclaimed novels, together with Ngugi Wa Thiogo in ‘River Between’, (Ngugi, 1965), have significantly contributed to the preservation of culture and history.

Modern African writers have a responsibility to carry forward what the early writers started. By embedding traditional African values in modern writing, creative writing will play a pivotal role in ensuring the documentation of what is slowly being lost to the modernity and westernisation.

Works Cited

Achebe. (1952). Things Fall Apart; 50th Anniversary edition. Heinneman.

Chinua. (1964). Arrow of God. Heinemann.

Dashu, M. (2013). Suppressed Histories . Retrieved from http://www.suppressedhistories.net/purchase/prints2.html

English Oxford Living Dictionaries . (2019, January 31). Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/writing-help/top-tips-for-creative-writing

Gunner, H. S. (2007). Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/African-literature#ref280660

Ngugi. (1965). River Between. Heinemann.

Thiogo, W. (n.d.). River Between . Heinneman.

THE DEPENDENCY SYNDROME Vs WRITING FOR OURSELVES

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Having been a teacher of English Language and Literature for over twenty years, I cannot help but register disappointment at the number of ‘foreign books’ that are continually featured on the Zambian syllabus. Well, I would not blame anybody. I too was schooled in these great books: ‘A Wreath for Udomo’ by Peter Abrahams, was a lengthy text that I had to master back to back in addition to the regulars in the curriculum. What can one expect in a country where not many people are writing? Actually there is nothing wrong with using text books from other countries, isn’t that what Literature is about- the study of anything artistic and of value?  There is everything wrong with not having our own local products being ‘glorified’ in like manner. If the study of literature helps one to learn about other people’s cultures and traditions, then it can be safely said that high school students of literature have adequate knowledge of the Ibo culture as ably outlined in ‘Things Fall Apart’, a book that has hardly left the Zambian syllabus for years. There is need to create and develop a Zambian Genre in order to propagate our own ways of life and traditional beliefs for the future generations. Readers and learners alike will grow interest in works that they are familiar with while creating a seedbed of knowledge that they will pass on for generations to come. There is great history, rich culture and warm traditions that Zambia has to share, not just among its citizens but with the rest of the world. If we are headed ‘Toward a Zambian genre’, then we can do better than once in a while having only two or three books written by Zambians. We appreciate books like ‘Tongue of the Dumb’ by Dominic Mulaisho and ‘Quills of Desire’ by Binwell Sinyangwe. However, there is need for a crop of writers who will compete favourably for space on the literature syllabus. This way we can finally move away from learners being so well vested in the ways of other people and becoming professors of their own culture, languages and traditions. The school syllabus itself is fertile ground where the literary arts can be developed and a place where with time, a Zambian genre can be harvested. It is a good habit to read widely, for who can ever forget the hilarious ‘Government Inspector’ by Nikolai Gogol and the amazing ‘Animal Farm’ by George Orwell’? However, a nation should identify its own literary works, and learners and readers alike should pride themselves in what is truly theirs. Despite the challenges, if people are encouraged to write for the national syllabus, imagine what great strides we would make ‘Toward a Zambian Genre’.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR CREATIVE ARTS AND LITERACY

A lot of writing has been done by Zambians on a number of topics, but much of it has been non-fiction, targeting mostly the academics. For this sector, the distribution of books has been easy, largely supported by the education system. Due to this, the larger population, those who are excluded from the academic path, remain illiterate and without access to literature that can lead to their personal development and the growth of the communities. There are key factors that must be put in place for the development of the creative arts and promotion of literacy. Currently, the creative arts are without structural support and writers are all over the place, either trying to make a career or earn living. It is equally impossible to make strides in literacy if the people who are writing cannot reach their readers. Not all reading material should be found in a classroom.

There is need to take literacy development beyond the classroom walls, to reach the communities, to reach those who are outside the classroom. The country once boasted of community libraries but now there are more bars and groceries shops. The lack of infrastructure significantly impedes literacy development. With most public schools having limited reading materials, such support structures like a community library would play a key role in cementing the efforts of the education system and at the same time broadening the spectrum to include those who are outside the school system. A community or public library can lead to development. Apart from providing opportunities for reading, such a structure can be used to disseminate information about other issues affecting societies and promoting development. It is through such places that community participation can be promoted, to make all members of the public stakeholders in the literacy and literary agendas. It is from such centers that writing careers have successfully been launched and promoted for the benefit of the community. The creative arts can also be promoted by being housed under tertiary institutions where English and Literature are taught.  This works well when an institution opens its doors to the writing industry and creates opportunities for writers and at the same time linking them to community literary programmes. For example, the Centre for Creative Arts falls under the Department of Humanities at the University of KwaZulu Natal. Over the years, a number of brands have been developed to include, ‘Time of the Writer’, a sponsored programme that now reaches out to international writers, ‘Durban International Film Festival’ and so on. It is because of such efforts by a higher institution of learning that Durban is now named the UNESCO City of Literature. We cannot leave the government out in this process. As a key stakeholder they should work toward taking the development of literacy and creative arts outside the school walls. We look forward to a time when the local authorities for instance will reintroduce community literacy programmes.

If we are to head ‘Toward a Zambian genre’, these elements should begin to work together.

 

REWRITING HISTORY AND TELLING OUR OWN STORIES

Photo credit: Kafula Mwila

Teaching history to adolescents can attract a lot of questions. A few years back in one of the junior secondary school history classes, a debate started and within a short time escalated into a heated discussion on who discovered the Victoria Falls.

‘There were people already living there’, came one argument.

‘Maybe they lived there and they did not see it’, said another.

‘Or they didn’t know what it was’.

‘They knew what it was’, the first one said, ‘that is why they called it ‘Musi-o-tunya’ in SiLozi or ‘Shungu Namutitima’ in ChiTonga.

I waited for their passions to abate and then it came, the question that was always directed at teacher, ‘what about you madam, what do you think? Did Dr. David Livingstone discover the Victoria Falls?’

Photo credit: Kafula Mwila

 It is such and many related subjects that have distorted the historical picture of Zambia and probably many African nations. On the one hand, those children needed to pass an examination based on wrong information that had been authenticated in a text book. On the other hand, facts had been written from a perspective of triumphant discovery rather than respect and awe of a great wonder around which indigenous people had built a life.

Another type of misrepresentation rallies around heroes and heroines who made significant contribution to the historical development of Zambia. These great men and women have gone down unheard or information about them is unclear. One case in example is the history of Alice Regina Mulenga Lubusha also known as Alice Lenshina. Her religion has been deemed a cult and her activities termed rebellious and counter-productive. Well, only one side of her story has been heard. The truth behind her actions will never really be known as what is mostly available are impressions that others had about her.

Photo credit: Kafula Mwila

Therefore, how can a writer begin to retell stories from such a background? Creative art that draws from historical themes is faced with several problems. Is it possible to change Zambia’s narrative to one of triumph and victory and glory? For instance, is it possible to rewrite the victorious battles of the wonderful tribes of Zambia in a way that shows skill, power and knowledge rather than defeat and great loss? Can a writer outline the religious and traditional practices of old without demonizing the people that were associated with it?

Photo credit: Kafula Mwila

What sort of information does a modern day creative writer use then? With a lot of inaccurate facts and in most cases unavailable information, one would then have to take advantage of oral narratives and fill in gaps. For instance, the names of some traditional rulers and names of tribes were mispronounced by outsiders and the names have stuck to this day. Is it Mwene Mutapa or Mono Mutapa? Is it Mwata Kasembe or Mwata Kazembe? The Bemba or Lunda do not have ‘z’ in their language, so how has the country ended up with ‘Kazembe’ and not ‘Kasembe’, which is the word for ‘axe’ in ChiBemba? The Victoria Falls in Livingstone is a marvel. The surging of the mighty Zambezi River over the huge gorge is an attraction. Tourists come in hordes, especially between December and April, when the Zambezi is pregnant with a lot of water, to witness one of the mighty wonders of the world.  This is the most significant point of the winding journey of the river before it continues on to empty itself in the Indian Ocean. The geographical feature has put Zambia on the world map more than football has. It is amazing that the journey of the Zambezi that starts as a small spring hundreds of kilometers away in North-western Province, transforms into such a powerful force of nature. It was named after the Queen of England by missionary and explorer, Dr. David Livingstone. In his honour a large statue stands adjacent to the falls. There are two Africans who were with the explorer at the time of the ‘discovery’, Chuma and Susi. They are only lucky enough to be named after a lodge. Susi and Chuma were natives of Central Africa, probably hailed from the Yao tribe but very little is known about them. The couple were only heard of after the passing of Dr. David Livingstone in that they helped to transport his body for burial back in England. If we are to head ‘Toward a Zambian genre’, then these are some of the areas of history that need to be clarified, even rewritten.

ZAMBIA'S LITERARY LEGEND- Stephen A. Mpashi

We ‘stand on the shoulders of giants’. Pioneers who defy odds to show the world that there is nothing impossible or too hard if you put your heart and mind to it.  The late Stephen Andrea Mpashi (1923-1998) is a literary legend. His great works continue to speak about his strength and giftedness in the use of the oral narrative. His writing career started in the 1950s and Mpashi is one of the founding fathers of creative writing in Zambia. Between 1950 and 1978, this legendary writer penned both prose and poetry. The originality and authenticity in his creative purpose have made his work relevant to this day. He wrote in his mother tongue, Chi Bemba, a language that is widely spoken in Northern, Muchinga, Luapula, Copperbelt, Central and Lusaka provinces. This represents a large audience. Mpashi was born in northern Zambia and did his education at Lubushi Major Seminary in Kasama, after which he proceeded to the University of Exeter in England, where he studied Creative Writing. His feats were not restricted to pen and paper because Mpashi is said to have joined the Northern Rhodesian army and fought in the Second World War. He shared his military experience in a book he titled, ‘Cekesoni aingila ubu soja’ published in 1950.

After the war he taught at Central School in Luanshya, a mining town on the Copperbelt Province. By the time he was 45 years old, Mpashi retired early from the teaching service and settled in Lusaka to focus on his writing. Mpashi is said to have been a kind, compassionate and principled man. One of his daughters narrates how he declined an offer made to him by the Frist Republican President, Dr. Kenneth Kaunda, to become Minister of Education. Mpashi’s reason was that he did not wish to mix politics with the values that he had placed on education. He turned his energy to writing and by the time of his passing, his books were well read in schools and by the public.  His books, listed below are still on sale in local bookshops and on Amazon.

·         1950: Cekesoni aingila ubu soja

·         1951: Uwakwensha ubushiku (detective story, which was republished in 1957)

·         1951: Ubusuma bubili (Advice to women on their appearance and conduct, which was republished in 1955)

·         1952: Umucinshi

·         1955: Uwauma nafyala

·         1955: IciBemba cesu na mano yaciko

·         1956: Uwakalema takaleka

·         1956: Pano Calo

·         1956: AbaPatili bafika ku ba Bemba (Republished in 1968)

·         1957: Pio akobekela Vera

·         1958: Bakutemwe (republished in 1972)

·         1960: Akatabo ka baice (republished in 1971)

·         1962: Amalango (a collection of Bemba poems)

·         1962: Ukupoka icisendo

·         1963: IciBemba na mano yaciko

·         1968: Pio na Vera (republished in 1996)

·         1978: Tusobolole iciBemba

If we are to head ‘Toward a Zambian genre’, literary heroes like Stephen Andrea Mpashi (MHSRIP), should never be forgotten. We should proudly sing about their victories and continue to promote their work. These legends have given the Zambian writer a foundation that can be used to grow the literary industry.   

FAKE ACCENTS, WEAVES AND BLEACHED SKINS

There is one incident that has stuck permanently like a scar on my mind. It happened in the era of the rush for ‘greener pastures’, when teachers left public schools to join the private sector. It was the period of the popular ‘brain drain’, when most professionals crossed borders to the side where the grass was watered ‘very well’. ‘To cut to the chase’ one of my frantic efforts to liberate myself from the ‘peanuts’ that government offered at that time, ushered me in front of a panel of interviewers, all British. During that time, I figured that one of the female panellists picked up my struggle to catch the quick spoken, semi-swallowed words. She spoke slowly and tried to pronounce every syllable.  How I wish she could have taken up the entire discussion because the rest of her team got bored with my constant interjections of ‘pardon me’ or ‘could you repeat that’. Suffice to say that I was not successful because my failure to catch the British accent made it seem like I did not know how to speak English. After twelve years in school and an additional four years in university, learning English, I had failed lamentably at the former colonial master’s language because of intonation. In the desire to overcome this setback I promised to teach myself the British way of speaking. Now, thinking in retrospect, that is just the problem, what is the acceptable manner of articulation? Some people travel abroad and after two weeks come back with a different accent, which does not sound like the people they try to imitate and is miss for the locals - wasted effort.  What was inherited from the colonial days still haunts the country. Zambia must start believing in its manner of speaking. It is one the countries in Africa where citizens do not need to constantly repeat themselves in order for others to understand what is being said.

English is not a first language in Zambia. By the time, most people are beginning to learn how to speak it, they would have learned their mother tongue first. Therefore, no one can be expected to speak like a British or American. Unfortunately, mispronunciations, poor intonations are scorned and looked down upon. English will remain the official mode of communication for a long time to come. However that is what it will always be, a means of communication and not a standard to measure our literacy, our speaking and listening skills. It is one way of remaining connected to the global village but is not a measure for belonging to an elite social class. It is important to have a common acceptable standard way of speaking without looking down on the interference from the local language. If we are to head ‘Toward a Zambian genre’, then we should consider acceptable forms of English that will not necessarily dilute common rules of grammar, spelling and pronunciation. Creative writers should be allowed to make use of Zambian phrases and expressions as a way of authenticating the culture and beliefs of the people being written about.  The millennials are caught up between many accents as a result of the influence of technology. The challenge to young people is that there is power in being yourself. The effort of trying to be like someone else can be exhausting, it devalues a person. Make your point without making your listener think that you do not know what you are talking about. The only pressure you will have is to be the best version of yourself. So when it comes to pronunciation, let us not judge one another harshly, English is just one of the many languages in the world.